Vakkom P. Muhammed Maitheen: The Forgotten Torchbearer of Malayalam Translation of the Quran

In the vast and diverse area of Indian Islamic studies, there are some individuals who stand out even though time has concealed them. Vakkom P. Muhammed Maitheen is one of them. He was a linguist, a thinker, and a translator who created history by translating the Holy Qur'an into Malayalam for the very first time. His grand achievement, though not appreciated enough during his time, has immensely influenced the Muslim community in Kerala for centuries.

This article considers the life and legacy of Muhammed Maitheen. It illustrates how his work of translation enabled Malayalam-speaking Muslims to relate to their religion. It also examines the social, political, and intellectual issues he encountered, and how his valuable work continues to influence the study of the Quran in the region.

Kerala's Islamic Intellectual Tradition

Kerala is situated on the south-western coast of India and has a thriving Muslim community. They trace their lineage to Arab traders and missionaries who had arrived a few years back. They have a rich tradition of Islamic scholarship, and mosques and madrasas play a pivotal part in defining their religious and cultural identity.

But prior to the mid-20th century, few Malayali Muslims were literate in Arabic and could not make the Qur'an readable. Although there were oral teaching, sermons, and the usual Tafsir, there was no complete translation of the Qur'an into Malayalam that could connect the scripture to the everyday language.

It was against this background that Muhammed Maitheen came forth as a singular thinker who possessed linguistic eloquence, religious piety, and unyielding commitment to educational reform.

Early Life and Challenges

Maitheen was born at Vakkom, a village in the Thiruvananthapuram district. He was brought up in a culture that appreciated Islamic traditions. He was extremely proficient in languages, literature, and religious studies since his childhood. He was compelled to discontinue his studies due to tuberculosis, which forced him to withdraw from the Government Arts College in Thiruvananthapuram.

This failure, nonetheless, didn't discourage him. Instead of giving up because of his illness and anonymity, Maitheen looked within himself and engaged in a phase of rigorous self-learning. He studied Arabic, Urdu, English, and Sanskrit, not just the Qur'an, but religious literature as well, literature, and modern ideas. He showed the spirit of self-education, not letting his situation define him.

The Quest for Translation

For Maitheen, the Qur'an's translation into Malayalam was not mere words, but a religious endeavour. He believed that every Muslim, regardless of how proficient they were in Arabic, should be able to access the divine word in its original state. He began his work on his translation during the early 1950s, thoroughly reading every verse and making sure each verse was clear, precise, and meaningful.

The translation had been completed in 1953—years ahead of any other prominent Malayalam translations. But, owing to lack of finance, organizational support, and perhaps the puritanistic religious outlook of those days, his manuscript remained unpublished for decades.

He largely avoided the public eye at this time, but he continued to study and was familiar to a small circle of intellectuals and religious reformers. He was unknown not because his work was not sufficiently good, but due to the political and institutional difficulties independent scholars faced.

Rediscovery and Posthumous Credit

Muhammed Maitheen's efforts began to receive attention during the early part of the 21st century. In 2009, over half a century since he completed the manuscript, the University of Kerala brought out his translation of the Qur'an. The edition was appreciated by scholars and religious leaders alike for its accuracy, good presentation, and readability.

This belated acknowledgment raised serious questions: Why did the publication of such a seminal work take so long? What does this reveal about the power and epistemological structures of India's Islamic institutions?

Maitheen's life illustrates the isolation of a reformer. A reformer is a person who is ahead of time, doesn't want to compromise on what he believes in, and does everything hard without expecting recognition.

Contributions to Language and Education

Maitheen was more than just a translator. He enjoyed writing, thinking, and opining on culture and education. He was deeply influenced by Islamic modernists such as Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. He was of the view that the future of Indian Muslims depended on enhancing education, scientific thinking, and spiritual purity.

His work indicates that he knows contemporary times pretty well, and he used to say that religious and secular education must be blended together. He also discussed dialogue between various religions, social reform, and the significance of moral education in public life.

His writing, though largely unpublished or disseminated in journals, is fertile ground for scholars interested in Malayali Muslim reformist intellectual endeavors.

The Politics of Translation

Translation of the Qur'an is not a neutral art. It involves decisions on interpretation of the text, linguistic nuances, and religious beliefs. Maitheen's translation is remarkable due to its balanced approach. He avoided radical literal translations and radical modern revisions. His goal was to be readable—faithful to the Arabic but natural to a Malayalam reader.

His writing was unlike subsequent translations that were more frequently than not colored by beliefs of a group. Indeed, Maitheen's translation was consciously neutral, and perhaps that is why it was not received so well in a religious environment that was increasingly polarized by beliefs.

It is this neutrality that makes his translation significant at a time when calls for non-sectarian and inclusive religious instruction are growing.

Heritage and Contemporary Relevance

Nowadays, Muhammed Maitheen's translation is being rediscovered. His translation has come out again in electronic formats, discussed in seminars, and included in school textbooks. Most importantly, it has reached younger Malayali Muslims who seek a more intimate, personal connection with the Qur'an.

At a time of growing religious division, his legacy reminds us of integrity, modest dedication, and the power of words to unite us. His legacy inspires teachers, students, and reformers who do not see knowledge as a source of power but as a path to freedom.

Conclusion 

Vakkom P. Muhammed Maitheen was not just a translator of the Qur'an but also a visionary who understood the power of religious knowledge to transform lives. By giving the Malayalam-speaking Muslim population their first full translation of the Qur'an, he made God's word available to all. His life, lived in illness, and subsequently remarked, indicates the enduring power of committed scholarship. As the world rediscovered forgotten voices and overlooked pioneers, Maitheen's tale needs to be told, retold, and known about—not just to recall him, but as a lesson in courage of mind and modesty of heart.

Ex-ISIS Leader recognised by the West as Syrian President: A Watershed Moment for Islamist Politics?

A Syrian Islamist president recently met with former U.S. President Donald Trump and was formally recognized by the European Union (EU). This is a significant development in world affairs. Islamist forces were considered enemies or threats to most Western nations for decades. Now, things are gradually beginning to change.

This action would make Islamist parties part of the mainstream politics. This action also brings up significant questions: Can Islamist parties be accepted everywhere in the world? What are the issues that they would face? What does this imply to the world and to the Islamist parties? And how can the parties adapt themselves to be more acceptable? All of these concepts are explained in easy-to-understand terms in this article.

1. From the Margins to the Mainstream: A New Opportunity

The Syrian Islamist president and the Donald Trump summit is not just about one country. It proves that the Islamist politics can be embraced globally if they are not violent. Previously, most of the Western leaders believed that all the Islamist groups were just like terrorists. Nowadays, they are coming to know that not all the Islamist groups are violent.

This shift gives hope to Islamist parties elsewhere. Tunisia's Ennahda party, for instance, is an excellent example of an Islamist party that is democratic. Morocco's Justice and Development Party (PJD) has also participated in elections without violence. Malaysia's PAS party also works within the democratic framework. These are signs that it is possible to be democratic and Islamic.

It is highly significant that the European Union is hosting a Syrian Islamist leader. The EU generally has faith in human rights, democracy, and secularism. So, if the EU can accommodate an Islamist government, it indicates that the world is increasingly tolerant of political Islam.

2. Challenges to Islamist Groups

While this change is promising, Islamist movements still face a lot of challenges in being embraced all over the world.

a. Past Issues

Most of the Islamist movements have a history behind them. Some of them were linked to extremist movements or had radical ideologies. This history does not make it easy for individuals to believe in them now. Western nations and even individuals in Muslim-majority nations fear that such movements would bring strict laws again or violence.

B. Divisions Within

Not all Islamists are the same. Some of them are democratic-minded, while others are extremely traditional or even extremist. All these differences keep all the Islamists apart. If they wish to be accepted, they must demonstrate that they are united and have a clear agenda.

C. Lack Of Experience In Governance

Some of the Islamist parties have never held power. When in power, at times, they cannot handle the economy, foreign policy, or public services. This can lead to losing the confidence of the people in them, as in the case of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt since 2011.

D. Opposition From Other Countries

Most Middle Eastern governments are either secular or military. They perceive Islamist blocs as threats to their rule. Such governments may attempt to hinder or attack any progress achieved by Islamist parties.

e. Expectations from the West

Getting assistance from the EU or the U.S. is not without regulations. Islamist parties will have to advance women's rights, minority rights, peace, and democracy. These regulations may conflict with some of their beliefs, so they will have to compromise.

3. Message To The International Community

This fresh affirmation conveys strong messages to everyone:

A. Political Islam Is Not Necessarily Dangerous

It shows that peaceful Islamist groups who have faith in democracy can help bring peace. Islamists are not all extremist groups such as ISIS or al-Qaeda.

B. Practical Politics Is About Winning

The West is more interested in actual goals such as peace, trade, and stability and less in adhering to principles. If peace in Syria results from cooperation with an Islamist regime, then most nations will consider it a good deal.

C. Islamism Can Be Normalized

By embracing an Islamist government, the EU and Trump are essentially telling Islamism that if it plays by the rules, it can be included in politics. This sends a message to other Islamist movements that they should play by the rules and attempt to become popular.

4. Message to Islamic Groups

This experience also holds significant lessons for Islamist movements:

A. Being Moderate Makes You Successful

Communities that avoid violence and participate in elections and legislations tend to be recognized more. Extremism only keeps them in isolation.

B. Openness Is Necessary

If such organizations want to be respected, then they must be open. This means that they must not have hidden agendas or deceive people. They should be involved in addressing real problems for people.

C. Be Open And Current

Holding on to outdated concepts won't work. The world evolves, and Islamist movements must evolve. They must recognize the issues of today and provide genuine solutions.

5. The New World Order: Room for Islamist Governments?

The world is no longer controlled by a superpower or double superpower. Power is distributed among various countries, and governments of various forms are tolerated. Islamist governments belong to the new world order.

A. Turkey: A Special Case

In President Erdogan's Turkey, nationalism is blended with Islam and modernization. Turkey is viewed by some as a good example of an Islamic democracy, but others are concerned that it is turning into an authoritarian regime (where one person has too much power).

B. Tunisia: An Example To Follow

The Tunisian Ennahda party attempted to create a democratic Islamic state. They agreed to losing elections and worked with non-religious parties. Even though they are doing poorly today, they proved that Islamist parties can be democratic.

C. Malaysia And Indonesia: Islamic Concepts Of Democracy

These nations demonstrate that Islamic values are possible in democratic regimes. Islamist parties function within the ballot box, obey the law, and collaborate with other parties. They are not flawless, but they prove that political Islam is possible and can be successful.

D. Morocco: Steady Improvement

Morocco's PJD dominated for decades in a democratic manner. Even when they lost an election, they conceded graciously. This indicates maturity and respect for democracy.

These are examples that show that Islamist states can be of the contemporary world if they are willing to do business honestly and peacefully.

6. What Islamist Groups Ought to Do

In order to be received more and to thrive, Islamist organizations must transform on some fronts:

A. Welcome All Citizens

Islamist parties must demonstrate that they are concerned about everyone and not only Muslims. They must defend the rights of religious minorities, women, and individuals with different beliefs.

B. Fix Real Issues

Citizens demand jobs, schools, health care, and security. Islamist parties must address these matters, and not solely religion.

C. Define The Political Boundaries Of Religion

Islamic values are important, but the government can't force individuals to be religious. Religion should provide good leadership, but not control everything in life.

d. Working with others Islamist parties are required to join either secular parties or other parties. Collaboration is a sign of maturity and results in stable governments. e. Abhor violence entirely They have to say no clearly and openly to all kinds of violence. When people perceive them as belonging to extreme groups, they lose popular support. 

7. Global Reactions and Future Steps 

The world is watching these events with interest. There could be nations that would welcome this new policy. There are nations, particularly dictatorships, that may be concerned about losing control. Western nations are also taking precautions. If this new trend leads to peace and progress, they may support more Islamist-ruled governments. But risks exist. There are right-wing parties in the West who may not wish to cooperate with Islamists. Extremists can attack moderate Islamists as "traitors" to their cause. The Syrian Islamist president must be careful and show firm leadership. 

8. Conclusion: A Moment of Transformation 

Powerful global actors recognizing a Syrian Islamist president is a big change. It allows Islamist political movements to prove they can be peaceful, democratic, and supportive of their people. But this is not an easy way in. Islamist groups need to work hard to fit into global politics by changing, getting better, and paying attention to their people’s needs. They must let go of old habits and prove that they can govern fairly. This is a time to harbour hope. Political Islam can be afforded a chance to improve the world and make it a more vibrant place. This is a chance. The future will depend on how well they utilize it.

Reimagining Muslim Womanhood: A Literary Review of Heart Lamp By Banu Mushtaq

Banu Mushtaq’s Heart Lamp winning the Booker Prize in 2025 is a historic and symbolic moment in global literature. For decades, the Booker has honoured works of powerful storytelling, often centred in Europe or North America. This win marks a significant shift—it acknowledges not only a literary masterpiece but also a voice from the margins: a Muslim woman from India writing about faith, gender, and inner resilience in a world that often overlooks such narratives.

The recognition of Heart Lamp challenges stereotypes about Muslim women. It shows that literature rooted in faith and modesty can be as revolutionary as bold political manifestos. Mushtaq’s calm, reflective prose stands in contrast to the fast-paced, often sensational literature that dominates today's publishing world. Her win proves that quiet resistance, spiritual honesty, and cultural rootedness are just as deserving of global attention. At a time when Islamophobia, patriarchy, and identity politics shape public discourse, Heart Lamp emerges as a soft but clear light. The Booker Prize nod confirms what readers already felt: that Mushtaq’s voice speaks not only for Muslim women, but for anyone who has wrestled with grief, held onto faith, or dared to live gently in a hard world.

 

An odyssey to Indian Muslim women

Banu Mushtaq's Heart Lamp is a striking addition to South Asian Muslim literature. Written in English, this collection of poems, reflections, and prose sketches brings the personal and spiritual life of a Muslim woman into full light. The book is both intimate and political, spiritual and social. It speaks of love, loss, faith, and identity in a modern world where Muslim voices are often misunderstood or silenced.

Mushtaq, a poet and thinker from Karnataka, India, is known for her writing in both Kannada and English. With Heart Lamp, she offers readers a clear, tender, and deeply emotional account of a woman's inner world shaped by Islam, feminism, and daily life in India.

A Lamp That Lights from Within

The title Heart Lamp is symbolic. It suggests a source of light that shines from the inside—a lamp of the heart, one that gives warmth and clarity in difficult times. Many of Mushtaq's writings are about finding strength and peace through faith and self-reflection. Her words are calm but powerful, and they carry a strong moral message without being harsh or dogmatic.

Throughout the book, Mushtaq uses simple but poetic language. Her voice is soft but never weak. She writes about pain, injustice, and marginalization, but also about beauty, prayer, and resistance. Her style is not flashy; it is gentle and honest.

Muslim Life in the Book: A Quiet Strength

One of the strongest parts of Heart Lamp is its honest portrayal of Muslim life, especially from a woman’s perspective. Mushtaq does not try to defend or explain Islam to outsiders. Instead, she shows what it means to live as a believing, thinking Muslim woman in a world that often misunderstands her.

She writes about prayer, fasting, hijab, and the Quran not as symbols or debates but as part of daily life. These elements appear naturally in her poems and essays, showing how deeply they are woven into her identity. Her Islam is not political or showy. It is lived quietly, deeply, and with thought.

For example, she describes the act of praying Fajr (the dawn prayer) not as a ritual, but as a moment of connection, silence, and strength. In another piece, she reflects on the power of forgiveness in Islam and how it helps her survive personal pain. This kind of writing is rare and needed in a time when Islam is often seen only through the lens of politics or violence.

Themes: Love, Loss, Resistance, and Belonging

Mushtaq’s writings in Heart Lamp revolve around a few main themes:

1. Love and Loss: She writes movingly about the loss of loved ones, especially her father. These sections are emotional and raw but never bitter. Instead, she uses loss to think about life, memory, and love. Her grief is expressed with grace and maturity.

2. Gender and Identity: Mushtaq explores what it means to be a Muslim woman in a society that is both patriarchal and Islamophobic. She is critical of sexism within her own community but also of how Muslim women are misrepresented by outsiders. Her feminism is rooted in faith, not in rejecting it.

3. Resistance and Silence: She believes that silence is not always weakness. Sometimes, it is a form of strength. In one poem, she writes: “Silence is not absence. / It is the space where my soul breathes.” This kind of thought shows how her resistance is quiet but deep.

4. Belonging and Faith: Many of the pieces reflect on what it means to belong—to a family, a faith, a land. Mushtaq shows how faith gives her a home in a world that often feels unsafe. She writes with love about her hometown, her language, and her religious practices.

Language and Style: Simple but Deep

Mushtaq's use of language is one of the book's most beautiful aspects. She avoids complex vocabulary and focuses on emotions and ideas. This makes the book easy to read but hard to forget. Her poems are short but full of meaning. Her essays are reflective and calm, offering insight without shouting.

There is no anger in her writing, even when she talks about injustice. Instead, there is sadness, hope, and quiet strength. Her style reminds one of Sufi poetry, where love, loss, and divine connection are central.

A Quiet Political Voice

Though Heart Lamp is not a political book in the traditional sense, it is deeply political in a personal way. By telling her own story, Mushtaq challenges stereotypes. She refuses to be seen as a victim or a symbol. She is a real person with faith, feelings, and thoughts.

In a time when Muslim women are often spoken about but rarely heard, Mushtaq's voice is powerful. She does not try to represent all Muslim women, but her honesty makes her writing universal.

Impact and Relevance

Heart Lamp is an important book for many reasons. It gives non-Muslim readers a chance to understand a side of Islam that is rarely shown in the media. It gives Muslim readers a mirror in which they might see their own quiet struggles and strengths.

The book is also important for women’s literature. Mushtaq shows that faith and feminism can live together. She writes as a Muslim, a woman, a daughter, a thinker—all at once. She does not see these identities as separate. Instead, they give her writing its unique power.

Conclusion: Lighting Many Hearts

Banu Mushtaq's Heart Lamp is a soft-spoken but strong book. It does not try to impress with big ideas or loud voices. Instead, it invites readers to slow down, reflect, and feel. It speaks of faith not as an argument but as a way of living. It speaks of pain without bitterness and of resistance without hate.

In today's noisy world, Heart Lamp is a quiet gift. It lights the way for those who are lost, gives strength to those who are tired, and offers peace to those who are searching. It is a book that deserves to be read slowly and remembered for a long time.

For anyone interested in Muslim life, women's voices, or the power of gentle writing, Heart Lamp is a must-read.

Dabistan-i-Mazahib: A Hidden Gem of Interfaith Pluralism from Mughal India

In a time when religious intolerance and sectarianism are just routine fare in the headlines, the discovery of books like Dabistan-i-Mazahib is a cause for renewed optimism. The title of the book literally means "School of Religions," and this 17th-century Persian text tells a wonderful story of religious pluralism that once thrived in early modern India. The author is anonymous, but the Dabistan-i-Mazahib follows the history and thought of the different religions and groups that lived together in the Mughal Empire. It is written in an inquiring, generous, and often sympathetic voice—a precious commodity for its time, and perhaps even more for ours.

This article explores where the Dabistān originates, how it is structured, and what it contains. It shows how it provides commentary on different religions and concepts. It also examines how it remains relevant today, particularly to multicultural societies such as India.

The Origin of Dabistān-i-Mazāhib

The Dabistan-i-Mazahib was composed in Persian in the mid-17th century, in the reign of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. We do not know with certainty who the author was, but most scholars are of the opinion that he was a Zoroastrian or born of Zoroastrian descent, by the name of Mīr Du'l-Fazl or Mōbed Shāh. Some others suppose that he could have been a Kashmiri or even a Shi'a Muslim who was deeply interested in mysticism. Whoever he was in reality, what matters more is his approach to learning: he was inquisitive, liberal, and genuinely interested in knowing about various beliefs.

The Dabistān stands out from court histories or religious polemics of its day because it was not intended to praise monarchs or argue against other religions. It was composed by an itinerant and watchful scholar who stayed in various societies, met their rulers, and participated in their rituals. His book provides fascinating insights into the religious and intellectual life of the subcontinent of India.

A Pilgrimage to India's Holy Places

The Dabistan-i-Mazahib consists of twelve chapters. Each chapter discusses one or more religious groups or schools. The author does not arrange them in a hierarchy of priority. Rather, each chapter discusses a single school or group. It has the impression that readers are going through a traveller’s journal or a philosophical inquiry, and not a religious controversy.

Next we will summarize the key points and issues in each chapter.

1. The School of the Magians (Zoroastrians)

The Dabistān begins with a succinct description of the religion of the Zoroastrians. This is quite natural in light of the author's personal background. The author describes the ancient Persian rituals, the fire worship, the conflict between good and evil, and how the practice of Zoroastrianism lost its strength after the Arab conquest of Persia.

This chapter also condemns the orthodoxy and dogmatism that had infiltrated Zoroastrian practice. To the surprise of most readers, it is full of reformist zeal and nostalgia, and the author bemoans the loss of Iran's venerated antiquity and prescribes methods of bringing it back.

2. School of the Hindus

The second chapter is the longest and, in this writer's opinion, the most fascinating. The author writes about various schools of Hindu philosophy, such as Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and Nyaya. The author makes karma, reincarnation, and moksha easy to understand.

The author explains Hindu rituals, caste systems, and ascetic life. What matters is his encounter with Hindu scholars, his reflection on their texts such as the Vedas and Puranas, and his attempt to comprehend ideas which are non-Abrahamic religions. He does not idealize nor caricature Hinduism; instead, he attempts to comprehend its inner logic.

3. The Brahmin School and the Teaching of Vedanta

In another section, the author is more specifically concerned with Vedanta and its mystical basis. He recounts discussions with learned Brahmins who expound Advaita (non-dualism), the belief in the ultimate reality (Brahman) as one and indivisible.

The style of writing here shifts to more contemplative, as the writer is interested in metaphysics. He compares Vedantic ideas with Sufi and Neoplatonic ideas, finding unexpected similarities.

4. The School of the Sufis

The Sufis chapter is an insider's view of Islamic mysticism. The author explores the different Sufi orders in India—the Chishtis, Qadiris, Suhrawardis—and their spiritual training methods. He writes about divine love, self-annihilation (Fana), and union with God.

What is striking is the author's respect for the emotional and ethical richness of Sufism. He describes how Sufis treated Hindus, their employment of music (Sama), and their criticism of legal severity. In a sense, the Sufi chapter serves as a bridge between Islamic and Indian spiritual traditions.

5. The School of the Shi'ites

The writer examines Shi'a Islam at length, noting the ways in which Shi'a practice diverges from that of the Sunnis in law, ritual, and the way the imams are revered. He discusses the nature of Imamat and the role of reason in Shi'a theology.

It also talks about the issues caused by wars in the Islamic world. It tries to show Shi'ism in a balanced manner, neither praising excessively nor blaming excessively.

6. School of the Sunnis

The Sunni chapter discusses laws, beliefs, and various schools of Islamic law. The author has a special interest in the Ash'ari and Maturidi schools of belief and their disputes with rational groups such as the Mu'tazila.

This chapter is more sombre in tone since the author does not agree with strict readings of texts and the dominance of religion. He also examines political Islam and how it influences beliefs and thinking.

7. The School of the Jews

The Jewish section is brief but clear. It is an external observation on Jewish traditions, sacred texts, and synagogues in India. The author is fascinated by the Jewish oral traditions and their emphasis on laws.

8. The School of the Christians

Christianity is also very interesting, especially the controversies between Catholics and Protestants. The author is specifically interested in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and in the life of Jesus. He talks to Jesuit missionaries in the court of Akbar and gives a partial understanding, though perplexed, regarding Christian beliefs.

9. The School of the Raushaniyyas

This chapter examines a lesser-known mystical movement founded by Bayazid Ansari in northwestern India. The Raushaniyyas integrated Sufi thought with reformist zeal, opposing both Mughal and orthodox Islamic elites. The author presents their poetry, visions, and distinctive practices.

10. The School of the Mahdavis

This section talks about the Mahdavi group, who expected a Mahdi (guided one) to emerge to revive Islam. The author views the austere lifestyle, communal living, and apocalyptic visions of the group to position them in the broader Islamic world.

11. The School of the Sikhs

One of the integral pieces of history is the author's description of the Sikhs. In the early 17th century, he came across people who were followers of Guru Nanak and gave a first-hand description of the Sikh religion, the teachings of Guru Granth Sahib, and the community's focus on equality, service, and piety.

This chapter is highly significant as it is among the earliest non-Sikh accounts of Sikhism and its evolution from a mystical movement to an identity-conscious society.

12. School of the Sarmatians (Fakirs)

The last chapter talks about the Sarmatians, who were itinerant thinkers and beggars. They were not members of most religious sects. They were atheists, sceptics, nature worshippers, and those who broke conventions. The author commends their willingness to question and live freely.

A Text of Radical Pluralism

It is the eclecticism of the Dabistan-i-Mazahib that makes it different. While religious controversies were the norm, this book promoted comprehension and dialogue. The author never states that all religions are the same, but he feels that no single religion possesses the complete truth. He states: "Each group thinks its own way is the right one. But the wise seeker must listen to them all."

The Dabistān foreshadowed concepts later attributed to the Enlightenment in Europe, including freedom of mind, toleration of religion, cautious observation, and admiration for diversity.

Relevance in Modern India

Why would anybody care to read the Dabistan-i-Mazahib in the 21st century? The reason is its method and message. Today, India's religious climate is again strained through political polarisation, social disintegration, and communal violence. At such a time, the Dabistān is an example of deferential engagement with difference. It reminds us that dialogue between religions is not a new phenomenon but a lived reality in India's history. The book is also stereotype-defying. Hindus are not idol-worshippers, Muslims are not fanatics, and Christians are not colonial agents. Rather, each religion is handled sensitively, at times even with affection. A Forgotten Legacy While it is wonderful, the Dabistān is not well known today. It was translated into English by David Shea and Anthony Troyer in the 19th century, but it is not part of most school curricula. It is not in general use among scholars of religion, history, and philosophy. Still, discovery could help create a better understanding of India's religious heritage.

Conclusion

The Dabistan-i-Mazahib is not just a historical text—it is Indian in spirit. It was penned by someone who went to visit temples, mosques, and monasteries, and it tells the story of curiosity, humility, and hope. In a world torn apart by different beliefs, the Dabistān offers us a different paradigm: not converting others, not conquering others, but living side by side. It reminds us that being taught by one another is not a danger—it is a prerequisite. And maybe, just maybe, the school of religions it dreamed of still has something or two to tell us.